Making compost

Want to do something good for the world and save money, too? Then stop buying fertiliser and make compost instead, says Geoffrey Burnie.

In the world's wild places no-one improves the soil or spreads fertiliser, yet they are packed with plants. It's one of the amazing things about plants and soils – they're in perfect balance. Plants grow by extracting nutrients from the soil and the soil is replenished with material that falls from plants. Fallen leaves, bark, twigs, fruit and branches all rot back into the soil, breaking down into the original nutrients the plant took up in the first place.

You can encourage this natural cycle in your own garden by minimising the amount of plant matter you discard, returning it instead to the soil. The more compost you can add to your soil over time, the more fertile and well-structured it will become, and the less fertiliser you will need to apply.

Sweep & spread
Some material can be swept up and spread on the ground between plants – fallen leaves and small twigs, for example. Even leafy hedge clippings can be raked up and spread thinly around the place. Lawn clippings can be disposed of this way too, as long as you spread them thinly so they don't form a thick, dry mass.

Larger pieces of plant material, such as woody branches take too long to rot as they are and may look unsightly if just stuffed between plants. They need to be shredded or chipped into smaller pieces first. Additionally, fallen fruit will smell as it ferments if spread in large quantities. It needs to be composted first.

If you don't like the idea or look of raw material, no matter what it is, then everything can be composted first. Some people argue that placing raw material on the soil leads to nitrogen deficiencies in plants (nitrogen is consumed by the rotting process and can be drawn from the soil) but I have not experienced this with my regular, thin spreadings of small amounts of garden waste.

How to compost
Composting is the process of decomposition, which turns plant matter into a soil-like substance that's nutritious for plants and soil organisms and good for the structure of the soil itself. You don't need any equipment other than a garden fork and a tarp, although you can buy various bins which minimise the space needed for composting. You may think they look nicer than a heap, too.

Let the worms in
Whether you buy a bin or just pile up the material, make compost on the ground so that soil organisms, which help in the rotting process, can enter.

Fine rots fastest
Add material to the compost heap or bin as it becomes available. The finer the material you add the more quickly it will turn into usable compost. Break up twigs or run them over with the lawnmower before adding. If you have a mulcher, pass branches through the mulcher first. There's no point adding thick woody pieces as they will take years to rot.

Balance of ingredients
Good compost is produced by blending leafy 'green' matter with harder 'brown' matter. 'Green' matter includes grass clippings, vegetable scraps, and soft green prunings. 'Brown' matter is shredded woody branches, dried leaves, straw and shredded newspaper.

Try to add brown and green matter in layers, not making any layer too thick. If you put in too much green matter, the compost may go sludgy and smelly. Too much brown matter and it won't break down quickly. With a good balance of the two, composting will proceed quickly.

Too much waste
One problem many gardeners face in making compost is that they generate too much of one material. Lawn clippings are a good example as they often make up the bulk of waste generated in a garden. If you just pour them into the compost bin they often do not compost properly and if you don't have enough balancing 'dry' matter, you cannot layer the clippings as you should.

Compost tumblers were designed primarily for grass clippings as the tumbling action aerates the grass and assists in its rapid decomposition. If you don't have one, either spread the clippings thinly over garden beds or pile them up separately, moistening them down between each grass-catcher load. Cover the moistened heap.
Excessive fallen fruit can be another disposal problem. Its moisture content will make compost bins sludgy if it is all tipped in so use some in the compost bin (preferably with other materials) and bury the rest in holes in the garden.

What not to add
Don't add meat or fish scraps, or prawn or crab shells (dig a deep hole and bury them instead – they're great for the soil). Likewise, dog or cat poo, or weeds with seeds attached to them should not go in. If you see flower heads either on the grass or on lawn weeds when you cut the grass, don't add that lot to the compost or you'll spread the seeds around the garden. Only add vegie scraps that do not include seeds.

Cover heaps
If you have a compost heap, cover it with a tarp to stop it becoming too wet with rain. In dry times, you may need to wet layers down as you add them as the heap needs moisture to work properly. As the heap grows, turn it periodically so that the outside matter is transferred to the centre.

The composting process
Both bins and heaps soon become alive with worms and many other creepy crawlies. By feeding on the material, these critters are helping to break it down into compost. They're completely normal and useful. As the material you add rots, its bulk reduces dramatically making room for more. Only when the rotted material fills the bin or the heap can be made no bigger should you consider using the compost.
When fully decomposed the compost will have a pleasant earthy smell and you will see little or nothing of the original ingredients.

How to use
You can spread compost onto any garden bed as a thin mulch (about 5cm deep is ideal). Organisms in the soil will begin to feed on it and in doing so will drag it beneath the surface where it will eventually form humus, the vital ingredient of all fertile soils.

Fallen leaves
If your biggest 'waste' problem is leaves falling from deciduous trees, you can do several things with them. You can add them to a compost heap or bin as 'brown' matter. You can spread them directly onto the garden as a mulch (though they might blow around if the wind gets up), or you can stuff them tightly into big plastic bags, which can be piled up in an out-of-the-way spot. Make sure the leaves are moist when you put them in the bags and punch two to three holes in each bag to let air in. By spring, the leaves will have partly decomposed into leaf mould, an excellent mulch and soil additive.

Make Your Own Bug Sprays

Alcohol Sprays
The idea of using rubbing alcohol as a spray for plants pests has been around for years. Can cause leaf damage on African Violets, and Apple trees.

Protection offered: Alcohol sprays work on aphids, mealybugs, scale insects, thrips and whiteflies. Alcohol sprays have been used successfully on houseplants and tropical foliage plants. Most of these have heavy, waxy cuticles that are not easily burned.

How to Make: Use only 70% isopropyl alcohol(rubbing alcohol): mix 1 to 2 cups alcohol per quart of water. Using undiluted alcohol as a spray is very risky for plants. You can also mix up an insecticidal soap spray according to the dilution on the label but substitute alcohol for half of the water required.

How to Use: Since alcohol can damage plants always test your spray mix on a few leaves or plants first. Tests results should show up within 2 or 3 days.
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Tomatoe Leaf
Nightshade family plants, such as tomatoes, potatoes and tobacco, have toxic compounds called alkaloids in their leaves. These toxins are water soluble and can be soaked from chopped leaves and made into home-made sprays. These sprays also work by attracting natural pest enemies. The good bugs follow the smell of the spray in looking for prey.

Protection Offered: Tomatoe leaf sprays have been used to protect plants from aphids. Also, spraying tomatoe leaf spray on corn may reduce corn earworm damage. The corn earworm is also called the tomatoe fruitworm, as it also attacks tomatoe plants. A scientific study has shown that corn plants sprayed with tomatoe leaf spray attracted significantly more Trichogramma wasps to parasitize the corn earworm eggs than the unsprayed did.

How to Make: Soak 1 to 2 cups of chopped or mashed tomatoe leaves in 2 cups of water overnight. Strain through cheescloth or fine mesh, add about 2 more cups of water to the strained liquid, and spray. For aphid control, be sure to thoroughly cover the leaf undersides, especially of lower leaves and growing tips of plants where aphids congregate.

How to Use: Spray plants thoroughly, particularly undersides of lower leaves and growing tips where aphids congregate. while this spray is not poisonous to humans on contact, use care in handling, especially if you are allergic to the nightshade family.
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Garlic Oil Sprays:
Organic gardeners have long been familiar with the repellent or toxic affect of garlic oil on pests. when it is combined with mineral oil and pure soap,as it is in the recipe that follows, devised at the Henry Doubleday Research Association in England, it becomes an effective insecticide. Some studies also suggest that a garlic oil spray has fungicidal properties.

Protection Offered: Good results, with quick kill, have been noted against aphids, cabbage loopers, earwigs, June bugs, leafhoppers, sqaush bugs and whiteflies. The spray does not appear to harm adult lady beetles, and some gardeners have found that is does'nt work against the Colorado potaoe beetles, grape leaf skeletonizers, grasshoppers, red ants, or sowbugs.

How to Make: Soak 3 ounces of finely minced garlic cloves in 2 teaspoons of mineral oil for at least 24 hours. Slowly add 1 pint of water that has 1/4 ounce liquid soap or commercial insecticide soap mixed into it. Stir thoroughly and strain into a glass jar for storage. use at a rate of 1 to 2 Tablespoons of mixture to a pint of water. If this is effective, try a more dilute solution in order to use as little as possible.

How to Use: Spray plants carefully to ensure thorough coverage. To check for possible leaf damage to sensitive ornamentals from the oil and soap in the spray, do a test spray on a few leaces or plants first. If no leaf damage occurs in 2 or 3 days, go ahead and spray more.
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Herbal Sprays
Many organic farmers are familiar with using sprays made from aromatic herbs to repel pests from the garden plants. Several recent studies confirm the repellent effect of such sprays. The essential oil of Sage and Thyme and the alcohol extracts such as Hyssop, Rosemary, Sage, Thyme, and White Clover can be used in this manner. They have been shown to reduce the number of eggs laid and the amount of feeding damage to cabbage by caterpillars of Diamond back moths and large white butterflies. Sprays made from Tansy have demonstrated a repellent effect on imported cabbageworm on cabbage, reducing the number of eggs laid on the plants. Teas made from Wormwood or Nasturtiums are reputed to repel aphids from fruit trees, and sprays made from ground or blended Catnip, Chives, Feverfew, Marigolds, or Rue have also been used by gardeners against pests that feed on leaves.

Protection Offered: Try herbal sprays against any leaf-eating pests and make note of what works for future reference.

How to Make: In General, herbal sprays are made by mashing or blending 1 to 2 cups of fresh leaves with 2 to 4 cups of water and leaving them to soak overnight. Or you can make a herbal tea by pouring the same amount of boiling water over 2 to 4 cups fresh or 1 to 2 cups dry leaves and leaving them to steep until cool. Strain the water through a cheesecloth before spraying and dilute further with 2 to 4 cups water. Add a very small amount of nondetergent liquid soap (1/4 teaspoon in 1 to 2 quarts of water) to help spray stick to leaves and spread better. You can also buy commercial essential herbal oils and dilute with water to make a spray. Experiment with proportions, starting with a few drops of oil per cup of water.

How to Use: Spray plants thoroughly, especially undersides of leaves, and repeat at weekly intervals if neccessary.
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"Hot" Dusts
Black pepper, chili pepper, dill, ginger, paprika, and red pepper all contain capsaicin, a compound shown to repel insects. Synthetic capsaicin is also available for feild use. Researchers have found that as little as 1/25 ounce of capsaicin sprinkled around an onion plant reduced the number of onion maggot eggs laid around the plant by 75%, compared to a control plant.

Protection Offered: Capsaicin-containing dusts repel onion maggots from seedlings, as well as other root maggot flies from cabbage family plants and carrots. Pepper dusts around the base of the plants help repel ants, which is desirable in a garden where ants often protect and maintain aphid colonies on plants.

How To Make: It can be rather expensive to buy enough packaged pepper dusts to sprinkle throughout your garden. However, if you grow and dry your own red peppers, chili peppers, or dill, you can make lots of dust at low cost. Use a mortar and pestle to grind the peppers, or dill, including the seeds, to dust. Be careful handling the hot peppers because they irritate sensitive skin.

How to Use: Sprinkle along seeded rows of onions, cabbage, or carrots, in a band at least 6 inches wider than the row or planting bed. A fine sprinkling will suffice, but the more dust you use, the better the effect. Renew after a heavy rain or irragation. To protect plants from ants, sprinkle around the base of plants in an area as wide as the widest leaves.
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Pyrethrin
The dried, powdered flowers of the pyrethrum daisy, Tanacetum cinerarifolium, were used as early as 1880 to control mosquitoes. The popularity of pyrethrum insecticides waned when synthetic insecticides were introduced, but they are now enjoying a commercial comeback. Many new products formulated with natural pyrethrums are available. Pyrethrins are the insecticidal chemicals extracted from the pyrethrum daisy. Do not confuse them with pyrethroids, the term for a new class of synthetic pesticides. Pyrethrums, which are mainly concentrated in the seeds of the flower head, are a contact insecticide, meaning the insect only has to touch the substance to be affected. Pyrthrins have a quick knockdown effect on insects: Flying insects are paralyzed. pyrethrins can be applied up to one day before harvest because they are quickly destroyed by light and heat and are not persistent in the environment. Pyrthrins will kill lady beetes but do not appear to be harmful to bees. They are toxic to fish and to the aqautic insects and other small animals that fish eat. Pyrethrins do not seem to be toxic to birds or mammals.

Protection Offered: Pyrethrins are registered for flowers, fruits, and vegetables, including greenhouse crops. they are effective on many chewing and sucking insects, including most aphids, cabbage loopers, celery leaftiers, codling moth, Colarado potaotoe beetles, leafhoppers, Mexican bean beetles, spider mites, stink bugs, several species of thrips, tomato pinworms, and whiteflies. they are especially good against flies, gnats, mosquitoes, and stored products pests. Flea beetles are not affected, nor are imported cabbageworms, diamondback moths, pear psylla, and tarnished plant bugs.

How to Make: If you grow your own pyrethrum daisies, you'll have the main ingredient for a make-it-yourself spray. The concentration of pyrethrums is at its peak when the flowers are in full bloom, from the time the first row of florets open on the central disk opens too the time all the florets are open. pick flowers in full bloom and hang them in a sheltered, dark spot to dry. Once the flowers have dried thoroughly, grind them to afine powder, using a mortar and pestle, old blender or small hammer mill. Mix with water and add a few drops of liquid soap. Store in a glass jar and keep the lid tightly closed, because the mixture looses activity if left open. You'll have to experiment with the amount of water to add, because the concentration of pyrethins in the flowers is an unknown variable. If the spray you make does not seem to kill insects, use less water the next time you make the concentrated spray. Also keep in mind whole flower heads stay potent longer so do not grind until ready to use.

How to Use: Pyrethrins are more effective at lower temperatures, so for best results, apply in early evening when temperatures are lower. Spray both the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves, because spray must directly contact the insects such as thrips that hide in leaf sheaths and crevices. The first spray will excite them and bring them out of hiding, the second will kill them. Never use pyrethrin products around waterways and ponds.
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Nicotine
One of the top three insecticides in the 1880s, nicotine in several forms is still widely used. Nicotine comes from the tobacco plant and is extremely toxic to insects. The great advantage of home-made nicotine tea is that it is very short ived, retaining its toxicity for only a few hours after spraying. It is relatively nonhazardous to bees and lady beetles because of its short persistence.

Protection Offered: Nicotine is effective against ground and soil pests, especially root aphids and fungus gnats, and on many leaf-chewing insects, such as aphids, immature scales, leafhoppers, thrips, leafminers, pear psylla, and asparagus beetle larvae.

How To Make: You can brew your own batch of nicotine tea by soaking tobacco leaves or cigarette butts in water to make a spray. Soak 1 cup of dried, crushed tobacco leaves, or an equivalent amount of cigarette butts, in one gallon of warm water with 1/4 teaspoon pure soap added. Strain the mixture through cheesecloth after it has soaked for 1/2 hour. The solution will keep for several weeks if stored in a tightly closed container.

How to Use: For soil pests, pour the spray mixture onto the soil in the area of the stem base and root zone. for leaf pests, spray leaves thoroughly, especially the undersides. Nicotine can be absorbed by plant leaves and remain there for several weeks. to be safe, use nicotine only on young plants and only up to one month before harvest. It's probably safest not to spray nicotine on eggplant, peppers or tomatoes. While most tobacco cultivars now grown are resistant to tobacco mosaic virus, nicotine sprays could contain the pathogen, which will infect nightshade family crops.

Companion Planting

A couple of general plants that make great companions for some good reasons!

Basil helps repel flies and mosquitoes.
Borage in the strawberry patch will increase the yield.
Catnip repels fleas, ants and rodents.
Caraway helps breakdown heavy soils.
Chamomile deters flies and mosquitoes and gives strength to any plant growing nearby.
Chives grown beneath apple trees will help to prevent apple scab; beneath roses will keep away aphids and blackspot.
Elderberry a general insecticide, the leaves encourage compost fermentation, the flowers and berries make lovely wine!
Fennel (not F. vulgare or F.officionale) repels flies, fleas and ants.
French Marigold root secretions kill nematodes in the soil. Will repel white fly amongst tomatoes.
Garlic helps keep aphids away from roses.
Hyssop attracts cabbage white moth keeping brassicas free from infestation.
Mint repels cabbage white moth. Dried and placed with clothes will repel clothes moth.
Nasturtium secrete a mustard oil, which many insects find attractive and will seek out, particularly the cabbage white moth. Alternatively, the flowers repel aphids and the cucumber beetle. The climbing variety grown up apple trees will repel codling moth.
Pyrethrum will repel bugs if grown around the vegetable garden.
Rosemary repels carrot fly.
Rue (Rutus, not Peganum) keeps cats and dogs off garden beds if planted round the borders.
Sage protects cabbages from cabbage white moth.
Tansy (Tanacetum, not Senecio) repels moths, flies and ants. Plant beneath peach trees to repel harmful flying insects. Tansy leaves assist compost fermentation.
Wormwood (Artemesia, not Ambrosia) although it can inhibit the growth of plants near it, wormwood does repel moths, flies and fleas and keeps animals off the garden.

How to Make Money with Chickens

Chickens Make Money!
Learn four easy ways to make money with chickens in your own backyard. Chickens are one of the easiest farm animals to raise. They have a very small start up cost and they generate a tangible product, fresh eggs and meat, that everyone enjoys.

things you'll need:
• Baby Chicks
• Chicken Coop
• Egg Incubator
• Laying Boxes
• Egg Cartons
• Chicken Feed

1. Making money with chickens isn't difficult. They are easy to care for and their products are easy to market. In fact, raising a few dozen chickens in your backyard is a great way to supplement your income, enjoy fresh eggs and meat, and run your own small business.

The basic business plan for making money with chickens involves you purchasing baby chickens from a hatchery and raising them until they are either laying eggs or ready to butcher for meat. You can also profit by selling baby chickens and composted chicken manure. Once you choose which type of plan you would like to try, you can decide how many and what type of baby chicks to order from the hatchery.
Raising baby chicks is not difficult, however the finer details cannot be explained within the context of this how to guide. Therefore, refer to one of the many books available about raising poultry for more details on that process.

2. One way to make money raising chickens is to have a flock of laying hens.
To begin, estimate the amount of space that you have for raising chickens. Figure at least 2 square feet per hen, to prevent overcrowding. The amount of space that you have, as well as the number of eggs that you think you will be able to sell, can help you decide how many laying hens you will need.

Next, gather your materials and build a chicken coop in your backyard. Chicken coop plans are freely available on the internet or in many books from the library. The chicken coop can be as simple or as fancy as you like, however you must remember that the coop needs to be able to protect your flock from predators.

Also, locate plans and materials for laying boxes. Build one laying box for every 3 to 4 hens. Install the laying boxes in your chicken coop.

Order pullets (baby hens) from the hatchery and raise them to laying age. It takes about four to five months for chickens to start laying eggs. Also, figure that your hens will lay about four to six eggs per week per hen depending on nutrition, age, and time of year.

Once your chickens begin egg production, egg cartons can be purchased in bulk and you can market your eggs in your local area. Remember that eggs must be sold as "ungraded" and you must label the cartons with your name and address.
Further research into small scale egg production can help you understand both the requirements and regulations that you will need to follow.

3. Another way to earn from chickens is to hatch baby chicks and sell them to other small scale farmers.

Many small scale chicken farmers, gradually begin to hatch their own baby chicks each year using their fertilized eggs and an incubator. This helps them to renew their laying flock and selling chicks can also provide an alternative source of income. Just by adding one rooster to your flock for every 10 hens, you can produce fertilized eggs that are ready for incubation and hatching. Baby chicks can be sold by word of mouth, at flea markets and trade days, or with an ad in the local paper.
You will need to perform further research on incubating and hatching baby chicks. Many resources are available via the internet or through your local library.

4. A third way to profit from a small chicken flock is to raise chickens for meat.
Fresh chicken is an excellent product to offer for sale. Many customers are looking to purchase chicken that was raised using a free range method. You can supply this growing market for fresh chicken by buying baby broiler chicks from the hatchery and raising them to maturity. The methods for raising broilers for meat differs from raising chickens for eggs, so further research is required. Once the broilers are ready for butcher, they must be processed or you must contract with a local butcher that is able to process your flock.

Selling homegrown meat is a regulated process and the rules vary from lax to very strict. Be sure to contact your local agricultural extension agent and county health department to find out what the rules are for your area.

5. Finally, another way to make money from chickens is to sell their composted manure to local gardeners.

Collect chicken manure and bedding from your chicken coop on a regular basis and establish a composting program for your flock's waste. The finished product can be sold to local gardeners as an excellent fertilizer for their vegetable plants.

Chicken Breeds Common in Australia

Backyard chickens are a great way to get fresh eggs or meat. Chickens are also a great deal of fun to watch and you get the added benefit of them helping control the insect population in your backyard. If you are thinking of adding some chickens to your life, here are some common chicken breeds you may run across.


The Araucana is a breed from South America. They come in almost any color combination known to chickens. They are distinctive for their ear tufts, muffs and crests. They have been diluted over the years by crosses with other chicken breeds and may be known as Easter Eggers and Easter Egg Chickens. They have earned these names because of the natural coloration of their eggshells. Eggs can be various shades of blue, olive green and sometimes pink. This breed is hardy and they lay quite a few eggs per year. Some hens tend to go broody and make good mothers.


The Australorp is actually an Australian original. This is a genuine dual purpose chicken that will provide a great deal of eggs per year as well as meat. An Australorp set a laying record of 364 eggs in 365 days! They begin laying between 5 and 6 months of age. Their glossy black feathers with the green-purple sheen make them a gorgeous sight to see. In Australia they can also be found in blue and white. They are a gentle breed that lays medium sized light brown eggs.


Orpingtons hail from England originally. They are a large chicken developed in the late 1800s. They lay a great number of eggs per year and also make good table birds. Their heavy feathering keeps them warm enough to keep laying in the winter. They come in buff, white, black and blue. They may go broody and they are excellent mothers. They lay large brown eggs. They are docile and easily handled.


The Plymouth Rock was developed in America. This chicken was created in the early 1800s by crossing Dominiques with Black Javas. They lay well in the winter and make a nice roasting bird as well. They come in many colors, including white, buff, partridge, barred, Columbian (white with black streaks on the tail and neck), blue and silver penciled. They are calm and mature early. They lay a light to medium brown egg.


Rhode Island Reds are one of the most popular chicken breeds in the world. Developed in America, they lay a large amount of rich medium brown eggs per year. They are often used to create sex-linked chickens where the roosters are different colors from the hens for easy sorting when they are chicks. Their rich red color makes them a beautiful choice for a backyard chicken coop. They are hardy birds and easy to keep.


The Leghorn is the breed used for most commercial egg production. They are light, thin birds. While they come in a variety of colors, the white is the most popular and the best egg layer. They were originally developed in the Mediterranean and were found in ancient Rome. They lay an abundance of medium to large pearl white eggs. They don't eat as much as some of the larger chickens, but they are flighty and nervous. They are good flyers and are quite noisy.


One of the more unusual types of chicken breeds is the Polish. These birds are light in body and are seen frequently in poultry shows. Their most unusual feature is the pom-pom like crest of feathers on their heads. They come in many colors, with the most striking variety having a black body with a white crest. They lay small white eggs. Special care may be needed to keep them out of foul weather.


Bantam versions exist for almost every breed. These are miniatures that fit nicely into a very small backyard. They are beautiful and often have interesting personalities. They lay small eggs matching their larger counterparts.

Of course, there are also many other chicken breeds available to the home flock owner in Australia. Check your local hatcheries and feed stores for more varieties. Most hatcheries will let you choose whether you want only hens or a mixture of both sexes, known as a straight run. Raising chickens is a wonderful hobby and helps a great deal when you are working towards simplifying your life.

The Muscovy Duck

Breed: The Muscovy
Temperament: females make the best pets
Cost: $15 - 25 for adult female, $30 for drakes, $100 for stud Muscovies
Lifespan: 7 to 8 years
Recommended for: anyone wishing to keep ducks
Maintenance: low

Muscovy Ducks are Easy to Raise and they Control Flies
Content: Muscovy ducks are a good choice for farmers because they are easy to care for, and they control flies. They forage for most of their own food, resist disease, and reproduce easily.

If you are looking for poultry that is easy to care for, resists disease, and controls flies at the same time, then Muscovy ducks are a good choice for you. They are healthy and hardy, they forage well for their own food, and reproduce easily. And they do a great job controlling flies. Muscovy meat is tasty and low in fat. Its flavour goes well with fruit and rice, and it requires less cooking time than other duck meat. What more could you ask?

You can tell a Muscovy duck from other types of ducks because Muscovies have large patches of puffy red skin around their eyes and over their bill. Muscovies can be white, greenish black, chocolate, or blue, or a combination of these colours.

Insect control
Muscovy ducks control flies and other insects the natural way. They are particularly helpful controlling flies, grasshoppers and locusts. In areas where rice is grown, Muscovies eat snails and slugs. If you put them in a pen with cows or calves they will eat most of the flies. In one experiment where two year old Muscovy ducks were put in cow pens, the fly population was reduced by 80 to 90 percent.

Care
Muscovy ducks are easy to care for. They don't need a pond nearby; just make sure they have clean water to drink. They need special attention only in the first few weeks of their lives. For example, ducklings need a dry shelter and warmth until they get feathers at about two weeks of age. Usually the mother provides these things, but a small shelter where the ducks can go during heavy rains is helpful. The ducklings should not get wet or go swimming until they are at least three weeks old and have feathers. So during this time, keep them away from streams and ponds in a small area with plenty of green weeds, grass, and insects. Leave small dishes of water for the ducklings for drinking and for cleaning out the breathing holes on their bill. Make sure the water in the dishes isn't too deep so the ducklings don't drown.

Muscovies eat grass and other vegetation. They can forage for all their own food. However, they grow much faster if you give them extra protein foods for the first two to three weeks. You can use broiler starter mash or chicken growing mash, cooked eggs chopped into small pieces, or cooked soybean meal. You can also feed them kitchen waste. These ducks may get sick if you give them medicated feed.

Muscovy ducks are great mothers and do a good job raising their young. Don't worry if the Muscovy seems to be sitting on the eggs a long time. Muscovies take longer to hatch than other poultry. A Muscovy egg takes 33 35 days to hatch. A chicken, for example, hatches in 21 days.

Muscovies will lay up to 80 eggs a year and hatch about four sets of ducklings if they get lots of high protein feed. If the ducks forage for all their own food they will lay fewer eggs, probably 20 to 30 eggs a year, and hatch one or two batches of ducklings. Muscovies are the all time versatile pet -they are interesting looking, cheap to run and are also edible. If you have enough of these birds you can make a quilt!

Appearance
Muscovies are easily distinguished from other breeds by their faces which are devoid of feathers, bright red, flashy and carnunculated (lumpy). The male, when alarmed, excited or angry, will erect the feathers on the top of his head and appear quite leery and wicked.

Male Muscovies are considerably larger than females. Large males weigh as much as eight kilos and females weigh approximately half as much.

Colours
White, black and white, blue (a light grey colour) and white, and bronze and white. A fawn and white colour also occurs but is much less common.

Temperament
Muscovies are docile, placid and slow moving if unthreatened. They do not enjoy being caught and picked up and will squirt their droppings as a form of defense.

Drakes can be bad tempered and aggressive and are not suitable as pets. Drakes will fight together and have been known to kill and even eat ducklings.

Flight
Drakes are too heavy to fly but ducks (unlike other domestic breeds) are perfectly capable of flying and perching. Confining them to your own backyard may be achieved either by keeping them in a fully enclosed pen or by clipping the flight feathers on one wing.

History
The Muscovy is a native South American duck and appears to be the only domestic duck breed which is not a descendant of the Mallard. Muscovy drakes lack the curly tail feathers characteristic of drakes of all other breeds.

The Muscovy belongs to a separate species to other domestic ducks and geese (Cairina moschata). Consequently the progeny which result from crosses between the two groups are sterile.

The name Muscovy is said to be derived from an odour of musk which pervades the skin but which disappears when cooked. Other sources say the Muscovy was named after the Muscovite Trading Company which plied its trade on the South American Coast.

Housing
Predators such as foxes and dogs will often make a meal of a duck and so some form of protective fencing or night time housing is essential. If the ducks muddy their pen it may be necessary to place the drinker on wire over a shallow pit.

It is advisable to stay close-by when letting very young ducklings away from shelter as they are susceptible to attack from predators, even during the day.

Health & Lifespan
Muscovies have very few ailments and are hardier than other domestic duck breeds. Care must be taken to provide ducklings with shallow water troughs to prevent them from drowning. Ducklings must also be warm and dry before nightfall or in very cold weather as they have limited ability to restore lost body heat.

Muscovies have a lifespan of 7 to 8 years.

Feeding
Muscovies should have access to a high quality well balanced feed, specifically formulated for ducks. The nutrient requirements of the Muscovy differ significantly from those of chickens. Duck feed is available from produce stores.

Muscovies are not noticeably enthusiastic about searching for snails but are quite proficient at snapping up insects which come near them. Kitchen scraps and grass clippings should be included in the diet. Ducklings especially, enjoy cabbage leaves, watermelon shells, raw meat and bread and also like to fossick for insects and fresh grass.

Drinking water should be cool and clean - the ducks will quickly muddy their water and, if uncleaned, this can be a source of infection.

Breeding/laying ability
A Muscovy duck will lay a clutch of 15 -18 eggs (one per day) and then sit if allowed. Otherwise she will take a break and lay another clutch. The eggs are about one and a half times the size of hen eggs and are equally edible - duck eggs are said to make perfect pavlovas.

Space and exercise
Muscovy ducklings, handfed in a domestic situation are not active birds but drakelets if not confined may destroy your garden. Muscovies will graze the lawn a little and will sample succulent greens but two or three ducks in the average backyard are unlikely to cause much damage. Small barriers can be used to protect plants if necessary. Muscovies do not swim much because their oil glands are under developed compared to most ducks.

Noise
Drakes do not quack but hiss instead. The duck (female) squeaks with different emphases for different occasions.

Uses
Females are useful for egg production. Males are usually fattened for the table - they have more meat on them than other duck breeds. They are ideal for the table around the age of 10 or 12 weeks.

The Southern Wheel of the Year

Southern Hemisphere Pagan Calendar I've found a site for Aussie Wiccans which has some good information for those in the Southern Hemisphere. I'm not sure how old the information is, so I can't vouch for the exact dates, so please take them as approximate, and I will endeavour to get the right dates soon.

Lammas / Lughnassadh 2nd February: Lughnassadh is the Celtic festival in honour of the sun God and is actually celebrated on the 7th. Lammas is a harvest festival, at which time it is appropriate to give thanks for the bounty of the earth. It is the first of three harvest sabbats. The sun god Lugh is celebrate as he is the god of harvest, fire and light. It is at this time that the first crops, usually grains and vegetables are ready to be harvested. The baking of bread is traditionally the way to celebrate this day, as is the making or purchasing of corn dolls to guard your home for the coming season. This is the celebration of the first fruits of the harvest. The sun king, now dark Lord, gives his energy to the crops to ensure life while the mother prepares to give way to her aspect as the Crone. Now is a good time to teach what you have learned, to share the fruits of your acheivements with the world. Other than bread baking and dolls, you can decorate your altar with fruit and vegetables of the harvest.

Autumn Equinox / Mabon 20th-23rd March: Mabon is the second harvest, and goddess mourns her fallen consort, but the emphasis is on the message of rebirth that can be found in the harvest seeds. You can celebrate by decorating the house with dried and coloured ears of corn to remind yourself and your home of the end of the harvest season. Again, the day and night are of equal length, and we give thanks for the last fruits of the harvest. Mabon marks the end of the second harvest, a time when the majority of the crops are gathered. The Goddess enters the Crone stage at this time. At the Autumn Equinox, the days and nights are equal. It is a time of balance, but light gives way to increased darkness. It is a good time to walk in the forests, gathering dried plants for use as altar decorations or herbal magick, Cornbread and cider are good additions the the festivites and Autumn leaves make great altar decorations.

Samhain - April 30th: Samhain, popularly known as Halloween is the witches’ New Year. This is the last of the three harvest sabbats, marking the end of the growing seasons. This is a time when the veil between the living and the dead is at its thinnest. Deceased ancestors and other friendly spirits are reunited with loved ones. It is a nice gesture to leave candles in the windows and plates of food for the visiting spirits. Divination is also heightened on this night. Autumn foliage and other autumny items can be used for altar decorations.

Yule - 20th-23rd June: Yule or winter solstice coincides closely to the christian christmas celebration even though people in the southern hemisphere celebrate Yule mid-year. Yule is all about winter. Hanging bells is a good custom, so you know when the wood spirits are frolicking about your home. The colours of this season are red and green. A lesser known tradition is burning the Yule log. Magickal symbols are carved into a log prior to setting it ablaze on the evening before Yule. A piece of the Yule log should be kept to protect the home throughout the year from negative energies and to light next year's log. If you can't burn a Yule log, find the biggest red candle you can get your hands on and carve symbols into its side. Surround it with mistletoe and holly, cedar and/or rosemary, light and let it burn all night long to ensure a prosperous year of warmth and light.Yule is a celebration of rebirth of the Sun. The god who died at Samhain is born from the virgin goddess. This the time of the year when the goddess turns the wheel of the year to its beginning point. This is the shortest day of the year and it celebrates the return of the god as seen in the lengthening of daylight. Here, the longest night of the year, the goddess gives birth to the sun child and hope for new light is born. Yule is a time of awakening to new goals and leaving old regrets behind.

Imbolc / Candlemas - 2nd August: Candlemas involves celebrations of banishing the winter and welcoming the spring. Light a candle in every room of the house or turn on all the lights for a moment or two to welcome back the sun. At the time of Candlemas, the newborn sun god is seen as a small child nursing from his mother. At this phase of the cycle, winter is swept away and new beginnings are nurtured. Some Wiccan traditions and groups favour this time of year for initiations into the craft. The goddess becomes the Maiden again as the wheel turns towards spring. It a celebration of Spring and the new life it represents.

Ostara / Spring Equinox 20th-23rd September: The Spring Equinox is the point of equilibrium - the balance is suspended just before spring bursts forth from winter. A good way to celebrate is to half fill a bown with water and place a selection of flowers into it for a display in a prominent position in the home. The night and day are of equal length at the equinoc and Ostara is the festical of balance and fertility. It is a celebration of of birth and new life. A day when death has no power over the living. This is the time of the official return of the young goddess after her winter hibernation. It is believed that the goddess and young god consumed their love, from this the goddess became pregnant with the god to be born at Yule. Traditionally Ostara us a time for collecting wild flowers, walking in nature's beauty and cultivating herbs. This is the time to free yourself from anything in the past that may be holding you back.

Beltane - 31st October - November 1st: Beltane is the celebration of the approach of summer, when breezes are scented and the evenings are getting warm and the divine union of the Lord and the Lady. Celebrations can include weaving a web of life around the May Pole and leaping the Beltane fire for luck. Lilacs and/or Hawthorn should be brought inside on this day, along with flowers of all kinds to represent the fertility of the earth. This is a festival of love, lust and fertility. This Sabbat celebrates life above all else. It is a festival of fertility to bring on the bountiful crops planted at the beginning of Spring. Pagans of the old days, at this time of year used to ride broomsticks and jump into the air to show the crops how high to grow (hence the myth of witches flying on broomsticks). The May Pole was also used at this time to symbolise the union of the God and Goddess with the weaving of ribbons together in mock sexual union. The Goddess enters the Mother phase at this time. Wiccan Handfastings are very common at this festival. This is a time of self-discovery, love, union and developing your potential for personal growth. Beltane is a time of new life. It is a time when baby animals are born, new plants grown shoots, flowers bloom and trees rebirth their leaves. Many like to celebrate Beltane by decorating their homes and themselved with fresh flowers, or by stringing up greenery around their homes and offices. Sending flowers to loved ones, planting new gardens, cleaning out the cupboards and general spring cleaning are all traditional Beltane gestures. Alot of witches celebrate fertility at this time, focusing on the cauldron for their main spell ideas, the cauldron representing all that is feminine. Others perfer the older tradition of dancing around the May Pole, a far more masculine symbol of fertility. Favourite Beltane past times include plaiting and weaving, and in general anything where you join two substances together to make a third. Traditional Beltane foods are anything dairy such as custard and ice-cream etc, but anything representing the sweetness of life would be just as appropriate. Just remember to celebrate love and life.

Summer Solstice/Lithia 20th-23rd December: Your Midsummer's dreams will be more lucid, so adopting new psychic dream routines is recommended. A fire lit and kept alight till midnight brings good luck to the home and its occupants. This is a time to perform rituals for personal power and protection, to celebrate the sun Lord's powers. This is the longest day of the year and the Sun God is at his strongest. The Goddess is heavy with pregnancy just as the earth is ready for the harvesting. It also marks the waning of the year as each day becomes shorter, heralding the onset of Autumn and Winter. The Summer Solstice, the longest day, is a time of triumph and light. In many wiccan celebrations, this is the Oak King, who represents the waxing year, is triumphed over the Holly king, who represents the waning year. The two are actually one; the oak king is the growing youth, while the holly king is the mature man. Healings and love magick are especially suitable at this time. Midsummer night's eve is supposed to be a good time to commune with field and forest spirits

Planting Calendar SE Queensland

This gardening calendar outlines major gardening tasks and what flowers and vegetables to plant for each season.

Winter
Slowed growth during winter provides an opportunity to tackle major landscaping projects like making new garden beds, paving, constructing pergolas or building retaining walls. Frost plagues inland gardeners, but elsewhere attention should be paid to making optimum use of scarce water resources.
Seasonal Tasks

Plant roses, deciduous trees, shrubs and frangipani cuttings. Prune roses, deciduous plants and swollen gall wasp stems on citrus. Relocate poorly positioned trees and shrubs to new areas. Control carrot-like bindii weed in lawns to avoid painful burrs during summer. Fertilise citrus, passionfruit, native plants and emerging bulbs, then water well.

June
In Bloom
Camellia, colvillea, grevillea, ipomoea vine, poinsettia & tabebuia
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, petunia, marigold, calendula, cornflower, dianthus, kale, lobelia, nemesia, pansy, phlox, statice, strawflower & viola
Vegetables to Plant
Carrot, cauliflower, kohl rabi, lettuce, radish, spring onion & turnip, beetroot, broad beans, broccoli, cabbage, capsicum, celery, endive, French beans, garlic, leeks, onions, parsnip, peas, potatoes, silver beet, spinach, swede, sweet potato & tomato.

July
In Bloom
Wattle, shower orchid (Congea) dombeya, coral tree (Erythrina), orange trumpet vine (Pyrostegia)
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, marigold & petunia, amaranthus, cosmos, gomphrena, phlox, portulaca, salvia, sunflower, torenia and zinnias.
Vegetables to Plant
Carrot, kohl rabi, lettuce, radish, spring onion & turnip, beetroot, broccoli, cabbage, capsicum, celery, endive, French bean, garlic, leeks, peas, potatoes, silver beet, swede, sweet potato & tomato.

August
In Bloom
Azalea, Geraldton wax, jasmine, magnolia & tabebuia
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, marigold, petunia, amaranthus, begonia, celosia, cosmos, gomphrena, salvia, sunflower & zinnia
Vegetables to Plant
Kohl rabi, lettuce & radish, beetroot, carrot, capsicum, celery, cucumber, eggplant, French beans, okra, potatoes, pumpkin, silver beet, spring onion, squash, sweet potato, tomato & zucchini
.......................................

Spring
It is easy to be inspired by the colour and perfume of annuals and bulbs in flower in temperate and subtropical regions during spring. Even as the build up to the wet season begins, flower and vegetable gardens in the tropics continue to soldier on. Visit your local nursery to check out new release plants and the latest gardening trends.

Seasonal Tasks
Fertilise bulbs, pawpaws, citrus and roses and water well.
Protect seedlings from snails and slugs with non-toxic, iron based baits.Prune hibiscus now and azaleas, poinsettias and snowflake bush after flowering.Repot and fertilize indoor plants.Control azalea lace bug, aphids, scale, leaf miner and bronze orange bugs.

September
In Bloom
Deciduous trees, azaleas, cymbidium orchids, hippeastrum, bombax tree, & Marguerite daisy.
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, begonia, cosmos, marigold & petunia, subtropical aster, amaranthus, celosia, cleome, gomphrena, phlox, portulaca, salvia, sunflower, torenia & zinnia.
Vegetables to Plant
Carrot, choko, cucumber, eggplant, French beans, lettuce, radish, spring onion, squash & tomato, beetroot, capsicum, kohl rabi, okra, pumpkin, rockmelon, rosella, silver beet, sweet corn, sweet potato, watermelon & zucchini

October
In Bloom
Callistemon, jacaranda, tree waratah (Alloxylon) May bush, native frangipani (Hymenosporum) & star jasmine.
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, amaranthus, begonia, cosmos, marigold, petunia, portulaca, salvia, torenia & zinnia, celosia, cleome & sunflower.
Vegetables to Plant
Capsicum, choko, cucumber, eggplant, French beans, lettuce, okra, pumpkin, radish, spring onion, tomato & zucchini, sweet corn.

November
In Bloom
Gardenia, November lily, port wine magnolia, poinciana, NZ Christmas tree
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, amaranthus, celosia, cosmos, marigold, petunia, portulaca, salvia & zinnia, begonia, gomphrena, sunflower, torenia & verbena.
Vegetables to Plant
Capsicum, choko, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, squash, sweet corn, sweet potato, radish, snake beans, tomato, zucchini, okra, pumpkin, rockmelon, rosella, spring onion, & watermelon
.......................................

Summer
Plants grow like triffids so expect to spend more time trimming, weeding and mowing. Heat, humidity, seasonal festivities and holidays can make it difficult to keep on top of things in this season of hectic growth.

Seasonal Tasks
Prune poinsettias, azaleas, camellias, gardenias and trim dead heads from roses.Look for dead patches in lawns caused by lawn grubs.Prune fruit trees in the tropics in preparation for the wet season.Fertilise the entire garden with an organically based fertiliser.Watch out for caterpillars on citrus, impatiens and white cedar.

December
In Bloom
Brunfelsia, jacaranda, lilly pilly, racehorse tree (Schizolobium) & sandpaper vine (Petrea)
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, cosmos, marigold, petunia, portulaca, salvia & zinnia, begonia, celosia, gomphrena, sunflower & torenia.
Vegetables to Plant
Capsicum, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, radish, snake bean, sweet potato, tomato & zucchini, choko, okra, pumpkin, rockmelon, rosella, sweet corn & watermelon.

January
In Bloom
Allamanda, buckinghamia, frangipani, Rangoon creeper (Quisqualis) & summer crocus
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, celosia, cosmos, marigold, petunia, portulaca, salvia & zinnia, begonia, gomphrena, sunflower & torenia
Vegetables to Plant
Capsicum, cucumber, lettuce, radish, tomato & zucchini, choko, eggplant, rockmelon, snake bean, sweet corn, sweet potato & watermelon.

February
In Bloom
Bird of paradise, crepe myrtle, daylily, hibiscus & mussaenda.
Flowers to Plantalyssum, celosia, cosmos, marigold, petunia, portulaca, salvia & zinnia, begonia, celosia, gomphrena, sunflower & torenia
Vegetables to Plant
Capsicum, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, radish, sweet corn & zucchini
choko, pumpkin, snake beans, squash, sweet potato & tomato.
.......................................

Autumn
Cooler temperatures and lower humidity make gardening more pleasant. Just as well - it is a busy season, ideal for establishing new plants and bringing excessive growth under control. Leaves and prunings make great compost.

Seasonal Tasks
Fertilise roses, fruit trees and lawns.
Plant sweet peas, strawberry runners, seedlings, bulbs, trees and shrubs.
Trim plants that have become too rampant over summer.
Raise the cutting height of your mower in preparation for winter.
Lift, divide, propagate and replant herbaceous perennials.

March
In Bloom
Leopard tree, oleander, ixora, pentas & tibouchina.
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, marigolds & petunia, candytuft, cineraria, clarkia, cornflower, nemesia, pansy, phlox, statice, stock & viola
Vegetables to Plant
Carrot, cauliflower, French beans, leeks, lettuce, silver beet, spring onion & radish, capsicum, cucumber, eggplant, potatoes, sweet corn, sweet potato & tomato

April
In Bloom
Camellia, abutilon, gordonia, golden rain tree (Koelreuteria) & barleria.
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, marigold & petunia, calendula, candytuft, cineraria, clarkia, cornflower, dianthus, English daisy, hollyhock, kale, larkspur, lobelia, nemesia, pansy, phlox, poppy, primula, snapdragon, statice, stock, strawflower, sweet pea, sweet William & viola.
Vegetables to Plant
Beetroot, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, celery, lettuce, radish & spring onion, brussels sprout, capsicum, endive, French beans, garlic, kohl rabi, leeks, onions, potatoes, silver beet, spinach, sweet potato & tomato

May
In Bloom
Barklya, Queensland umbrella, native sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia), snow flake bush, tree daisy (Montanoea)
Flowers to Plant
Alyssum, marigold & petunia, calendula, candytuft, cineraria, clarkia, cornflower, dianthus, English daisy, hollyhock, kale, larkspur, lobelia, nemesia, pansy, phlox, poppy, primula, snapdragon, statice, stock, strawflower, sweet pea, sweet William & viola.
Vegetables to Plant
Broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, carrot, kohl rabi, lettuce, radish, silver beet, spring onion & turnip, beetroot, broad beans, Brussels sprout, capsicum, celery, chicory, endive, French beans, garlic, leeks, onions, parsnip, peas, potatoes, spinach, swede, sweet potato& tomato